Relevant Information for Decision Making Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Relevant Information for Decision Making - Essay Example packing with this eventual end in mind would be something that the company would be losing money on in the short run; yet something that it was willing to doing order to both see to the needs of the environment as well as engage the customer with the idea that it was a primary focus of the brand to seek to develop a degree of sustainability. Naturally, as with any key decision, relevant and non-relevant costs both factors into such an implementation. As such, this brief analysis will consider the relevant and non-relevant costs associated with management’s decision with regards to aforementioned issue. The change mechanism which will be discussed herein took place over a period of two weeks during the beginning of September 2012. Of course the relevant costs associated with such a change will necessarily be those associated with the differential between the cost of continuing to provide the old form of packaging as opposed to the new. With respect to this differential, as has been noted, it will be more expensive for the firm to engage in the new form of packaging due to the fact that it will require new and emergent technology to be utilized in seeking to reduce the overall amount of waste generated as well as seeking to ensure that the waste that is generated is both photosynthetically degradable as well as biodegradable in enhanced ways. Similarly, the key non-relevant cost associated with this decision is the manner and degree to which the customer will readily embrace the new packaging and/or find themselves unhappy with the changes that have been wrought. This concern is of course highly relevant and important in an industry that is oftentimes subject to the dissatisfaction of consumers based on no other rational than a key component of expected value that they have grown accustomed to has changed or is slightly differentiated than before (Argawal et al 2011). Implementing such a change was not especially difficult from the employee approach as

Pacifist Philosophy in Response to the Idea of War Essay Example for Free

Pacifist Philosophy in Response to the Idea of War Essay There are a variety of different philosophical interpretations of the idea of war, even what it means to be at war. Engaging in war is generally described as being the resort to violence in order to attain political ends. War is described by some as being a tyrannical crime, in that power hungry individuals lose sight of their morals and resort to unethical violence committed against others (Walzer, 2006). From this perspective, one notes the assertion that there is never a good reason to engage in such brutal behavior as to harm another individual. However, there are supposed potential weaknesses in this theory, due to the fact that nonviolence at all costs can be viewed as a complete lack of self defense (White, 2008). In any regard, the pacifist philosophy holds that there is never a good reason to engage in combat with other people, that true solutions are found solely through peaceful means. In light of the pacifist ideology, the idea of war has no place, even in the face impending and actual violence, and the best route in the face of danger is to resist participating in the cruelty. It is not always easy to attempt to manage a violent situation in peaceful ways, non-harmful ways, yet there are a myriad of creative ways to address the problem of violent people, ways which do not support aggressive thoughts and actions. In order to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of the pacifist position, it is essential to engage in comprehensive research and thought about the meaning of peace at all costs. Pacifism The principle ideas which serve as the conceptual framework of the pacifist movement center on the assertion that war is dictatorial cruelty derived from evil thoughts and actions and that peaceful behaviors are the only way in which to effectively diffuse this brutality. Practical pacifism affirms that resorting to violence is not the answer to the problem of violence in the world, that violence should be absolutely avoided and peaceful means of solution oriented action should be taken (Fiala, 2004). In other words, there is the example of the country who supports the death penalty as a means of supposed just punishment for people accused of the crime of murder. From a pacifist perspective, the idea of using violence as a means to eradicate violence is simply unreasonable and points to an illogical frame of thought and action. The pacifist would be likely to condone a means of arrest and rehabilitation rather than arrest and kill. The idea of peaceful interventions is paramount and supercedes all options deemed to be harmful to people. On a more personal level, one can take the interaction between and husband and wife or mother and child. When a person becomes angry enough to yell or hit, then the answer is not to yell or hit back in response, but rather to be calm and communicate with the other person in figuring out a solution. This kind of civilized action and communication can go a long way in ensuring that the violence does not continue, and this kind of civilized communication and action is able to be successfully translated to the public and political sphere as well. Strengths There are many strengths of the pacifist movement, in that the people who support peace at all costs are able to devise a great many solutions to violence which are centered on ensuring the absolute safety and wellbeing of all people. It is important to consider the ideas generated by pacifists, as they directly speak to the absolute moral concept of non-harm. Jesus Christ himself is quoted as saying, â€Å"You have heard that it was said, ‘An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth,’ but I say to you, ‘Do not resist one who is evil; but if anyone strikes you on the right cheek, turn to him the other also’†, described as one of the most revolutionary sermons he ever gave (Ellens, 2007). This powerful commentary demands that people utilize the supremacy of restraint when faced with violence, even at a time, like today, when major religions condone the use of brutality. There is not one major religion in the world which absolutely forbids the use of violence, to the detriment of all people in the world. There is not one country which expressly forbids the act of war and supports the command for love, the command to offer one’s cheek to one’s aggressor. With all of the available options for peace, including communication, protest, boycotting, arrest, and rehabilitation, there is a known and certain positive effect which can be produced through the use of more gentle modes of action than violence. The media today is full of popular artists who tout violence as a masculine or commanding way of settling a score. However, when a person resorts to violence in an attempt to eradicate violence, the end result is simply another person who is drawn into the problem itself. The only way to end the violence in the world is by commitment to faith in the inherent goodness of humanity, to staunchly support the idea that solutions can be found which do not cause harm to other people. Criminality is basically defined as causing harm, and it makes no sense to become a criminal in the desire to ensure justice. Weaknesses There are those people who claim that there are weaknesses in the pacifist philosophy, that absolute peace defies the need to defend oneself from harm. People who do not support absolute pacifism claim that one of the only ways to address the problem of rogue states is to resort to war (Jacobson, 2007). Engaging in the violence of war is supposedly justified as an unfortunate effect of having no other option but to defend oneself and one’s country from the violent actions of others. To some people, pacifism may seem to be weak. In response to an event such as the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center, many people believed that the best solution was to violently enter into the home countries of the terrorists and to take over through the use of brutal force. To some people, there are terrorists, offenders, on one side of the war, and defenders on the other. From this perspective, there are two teams in the war game, certain people who are committing evil and need to be stopped at all costs, even through harm and loss of life, and people who are engaged in righteous self defense. This philosophical viewpoint stems from a bipolar system, where some people are engaging in violence for bad reasons and some people for good reasons. This simple yet convoluted way of thinking is highly selfish and negative, in that one person, or one team, is the victim, the oppressed, the suffering agent, the other person or team is the tyrant, the oppressor, the harmful agent. In this mode of judgment, there is only one guilty party, and the guilty are deserving of cruel punishment. However, the essential problem is always the same, in that there is supposedly never a good reason to cause harm to another person. Although the determination for war may be convenient, especially when people are actively engaged in the violent activity, there is still the basic problem of violence as a moral problem rather than a solution. Dividing couples, families, societies, countries, and political systems into warring teams of bad versus good does little to solve the core issues of the criminality of causing harm to others. Rebuttal Although some people believe that the pacifist ideology is weak and perhaps even a pathetic mode of political action, a powerful case can be made in support of peaceful decision making, decisions which are strong and influential while also being relatively calm and diplomatic. There is no government which has successfully demilitarized their country, no political system which has shifted to a purely diplomatic strategy for achieving peaceful end results (Djerejian, 2007). Due to the fact that all countries in the world are suffering from some form of violence, the case can certainly be made that policies which promote violence simply encourage the violent behaviors of citizens. What a different world this would be if the response to an attack was to demilitarize a region, to offer one’s cheek. What an interesting phenomena it would be to witness a region where guns were systematically removed from all persons, homes, and cars, even if it meant being shot in the process. Although an initial, primal, or habitual response to an attack is to harm one’s attacker, there is the ever present possibility of changing one’s response, to commit to the idea of peaceably reacting in the face of impending danger. When a child is hitting a parent, often the best reaction is to let a child hit until the child realizes that the parent is not going to hit back, to allow the child to realize that the parent is totally loving and totally dependable. Conclusion The political solution for all policy making is always going to be a peaceful solution, whether politicians realize it or not. The leaders of the world are going to be the ones who quietly offer their cheek, who are committed to helping their neighbors, even when these neighbors are seeking revenge. It takes a smart person to realize that one is participating in an immorally violent society, and it takes an even smarter person to realize that one is responsible for being an agent of change in support of pacifism. There are very few truly innocent people out there, if any, no countries which are politically perfect. From this perspective, people need to humble themselves in the face of their neighbors, to be aware of the shameful past and current atrocities being committed by governments across the globe, and to resolutely stand for the implementation of peaceful solutions. Policies can only be effectively changed by people who are committed activists in the name of peace, and these activists are the leaders of the world, pacifists in the name of the goodness of humanity. References Djerejian, E. (2007). Changing Minds, Winning Peace: A New Strategic Direction for U. S. Public Diplomacy in the Arab Muslim World. Lulu. com. Ellens, H. (2007). The destructive power of religion: violence in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Greenwood Publishing Group. Fiala, A. (2004). Practical pacifism. Algora Publishing. Jacobson, A. (2007). Nonviolence as a Way of Knowing in the Public School Classroom. In Factis Pax 1(1), 38-54. Walzer, M. (2006). Just and unjust wars: a moral argument with historical illustrations. Basic Books. White, J. (2008). Contemporary Moral Problems. Cengage Learning.

ESL Writing Achievement and Grades

ESL Writing Achievement and Grades STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD WRITING ESL STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS TOWARDS PEER RESPONSE Graham, Berninger, and Fan (2007) emphasized that attitude is an effective component of motivation. Concerning (Second Language Acquisition (SLA), Cook (1993) elaborated on the Affective Filter Hypothesis proposed by Krashen’s 1982 theory of second language acquisition. Cook (1993) stated that Krashen theorized that motivation is an essential variable that has a facilitative, affective role in L2 (second language) learning. Cook (1993) explained that Krashen claimed that Language learners who are highly motivated are more inclined to acquire the target language. Unmotivated learners who are highly anxious on the other hand, usually have difficulty understanding the target language because of a high â€Å"affective filter† which results in a â€Å"mental block† that hinders â€Å"comprehensible input† from being acquired. The question here is; how about peer reviewers’ affective state? More critically, and in direct relation with (ESL) writing, Anderman and Wolters (2006) indicated that the affective states may influence the different types of strategies which are utilized by students while writing (as cited in Graham et al., 2007). Along similar lines, Isen (1990) stipulated that students with negative affect tend to use obsolete and dead-end writing strategies whereas students who are characterized by an affirmative and more encouraging attitude towards writing tend to get engaged in more flexible and adaptive self-regulated strategies which help them be cognitively engaged to the writing task (as cited in Graham et al., 2007). According to Graham, Berninger, and Fan (2007) the sole researcher who investigated students’ attitude towards writing in a systematic way during the 90s was Knudson (1992, 1993, 1995) whose main area of focus was elementary age children. Kear, Coffman, McKenna, and Ambrosio (2000) found out that children’s attitude toward writing actually worsens as they move to upper grades. Same results were reported in earlier research done by Knudson (1991, 1992, 1993) who also found out that older students tend to have less positive attitudes towards writing that younger ones (as cited in Kear et al., 2000). Therefore, Knudson (1995) insisted that since research indicates that writing anxiety and apprehension have a negative effect on students’ success in school, practitioners should be more involves in research that has to do with writers’ attitudes towards writing and how it evolved in school environment. Knudson (1995) also emphasized that educators should be know ledgeable about their students’ understanding of the writing tasks so that they would be better able to assess their students’ engagement, involvement, and interest. Knudson (1995) conducted a field study which examined how writing attitude and achievement are correlated in addition to the correlational relationship between writing attitude and grade level in addition to gender. The participants were 430 students enrolled in an elementary school in the USA / English language native speakers who came from either low or lower socio-economic status. The researcher administered a questionnaire for each student grade level. Hence, students in grades (1-3) responded to the writing Attitude Survey for Primary grade students; whereas older students in grades (4-8) responded to the Writing Attitude Survey for Children. It must further be noted that the aforementioned attitude scales were both developed by the researcher. In addition to the questionnaires, students were asked to respond to a given prompt. Each essay written by students was read and graded by two raters who had achieved acceptable terms of inter- rater reliability. Knudson (1995) triangulated her data collection procedures by randomly selecting 12 students from all grade levels and interviewed them to elaborate on their answers they have given in the writing attitude survey . The children were also interviewed to elaborate on their beliefs towards the writing tasks done at school and how they were directly related to their achievement as well as to explain how they perceived writing to be important. The interview contained 10 open –ended questions which provided the researcher more insights about students’ understanding of writing tasks and activities at different grade levels as well as more explanations on students’ responses given in the questionnaires administered earlier. Results indicated that writing achievement was directly related to students’ grade level as well as their perceptions and attitudes towards writing. Hence, Knudson (1995) reported that students who have positive attitudes towards writing regardless of age and gender tend to be better writers. On the other hand, concerning grade level and gender and their relation to writing achievement, the researcher also reported that older students and females in particular have a better inclination towards becoming proficient writers that younger writers and males in particular. What is interesting is that Knudson (1995) claimed that the questionnaires and interviews she conducted also measured how students’ attitudes towards writing changes as a result of specific writing strategies they learner in class. Hence, students in grade 4 for example were able to verbalize the process strategies they used in writing such as planning, organizing, and goal setting. So, the researcher conclu ded that the process writing approach became more prevalent in writing instruction where students engage in prewriting activities and this strategy was verbalized by the participants as â€Å"planning the entire composition†, drafting which was voiced by the interviewed students as â€Å"thinking what to include and leave out†, in addition to revising which was verbalized by Knudson’s participants as â€Å"being sure they stayed on topic† (Knudson, 1995, p. 94). These results are consistent with what Knudson (1991) suggested when she was in the process of developing her writing attitude scales back then. Hence, she recommended that â€Å"it is useful for researchers, program evaluators, and researchers to assess children’s attitudes towards writing and the effect of instruction on their attitudes, including treatment, grade, and times of measurement† (Knudson, 1991, p. 814). Of direct relevancy, Graham, Berninger, and Fan, (2007) investigate d one aspect of motivation; specifically, attitudes of young, beginning writers. The participants were 128 first grade level students (70 females and 58 males) and 113 third grade level students (57 females and 56 males) who were English language native speakers. The educational level of the parents was used as a socioeconomic status as well. The participants’ writing proficiency was average ranged. To begin with, each student wrote a composition and three measurements were conducted for each written composition. The first measure aimed at assessing the sophistication of vocabulary use by students. Therefore, two scorers counted 7- letters or more vocabulary words and transformed into portions (based on TOWL-2). The second measure was the average length of the right word sequence. The average length was measured by obtaining the â€Å"average length and correct word sequences that occurred in sequence before an incorrect word sequence occurred† (Graham, Berninger, and Fan, 2007, p. 525). Two scorers revised and discussed the rules for obtaining a correct word sequence and inter-rater reliability coefficient was 0.85.The overall quality of written essays was calculated by the third measure which was a holistic rating scale based on (Cooper 1977) . The papers were scored on a 7-point Likert scale, 1 being the lowest quality of writing and 7 being the highest by two former e lementary grade school teachers (inter-rater reliability coefficient was 0.93). As for students’ attitude towards writing, students had to cater to seven questions which measured their attitudes toward writing. The researchers used the Garfield the cat scale developed by McKenna et al. (1995). Hence, students chose images ranging from the image of a very happy Garfield the cat (score of 4) and ending up with a score of 1 that is the very unhappy or sad Garfield. Later on, structural equality modeling (SEM) approaches based on (Bollen, 1989, and Kline, 1998) were used to identify the structural relationship between attitude and achievement. It should be noted that in addition to examining the structural relationship between attitude and achievement, the researchers examined age differences (younger / older) and gender differences (male/ female). Results indicated that writing attitude does influence writing achievement because the relationship between them was found to be statistically significant. Moreover, girls were found to have more positive attitudes toward writing and therefore favored writing more than boys did. However, no statistical difference was reported concerning the writing achievement variable. Interestingly enough, Musgrove (1999) conducted a different kind of study concerning students’ attitudes toward writing. The researcher had her students write self-evaluative narratives that reflect how writing attitudes are usually shaped by how successful students’ writing experiences are. The participants were English majors prospective secondary teachers and college students registered in a first-year writing class. At the beginning of the term, Musgrove (1998) identified for her students what is meant by attitude â€Å"one’s predispositions toward particular tasks, ideas, or people† and provided them with lexical terms of attitude. Then, in a series of mini-lessons, she provided her students with literary works which demonstrated particular attitudes (positive and negative critical attitudes) which were discussed by students. The researcher then asked students to track down how their attitudes towards writing developed by keeping records and compiling portfolios. Musgrove (1999) announced that the portfolios included â€Å" a resume, an initial attitudinal survey, learning goals, personal grammar and usage handbook, in class writing, homework assignments, essays, and portfolio self-evaluations written at midterm and end of semester† (p. 5). Musgrove (1998) concluded that drawing students’ attention to their attitudes gave them the opportunity to examine how their beliefs and what they bring to their writing definitely affects their writing achievement. Moreover, the self-evaluations written by students helped them connect to their backgrounds as writers because their writing background actually directly affects their attitudes towards writing. However, Katstra, Tollefson, and Gilbert’s (1987) study was the only study; to my knowledge, that examined the effect of peer response on students’ attitudes toward writing. To elaborate, the study was conducted to investigate whether peer response in a process approach to writing environment could yield to positive attitudes towards writing along increased fluency. The participants were ninth grade native speakers in the USA who registered in seven English classes which were taught by three teachers. The subjects were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups in such a way that each teacher had a control group and an experimental group to teach. Both the control groups and the experimental groups responded to two attitude instruments before treatment. Then, both groups wrote the first draft of a personal narrative. The first drafts’ word number was tallied and recorded as a pretest measure for fluency in writing. The treatment was introduced over a pe riod of four days. First, the experimental group explicitly received training in peer response and participants rewrote their second drafts according to comments suggested by the peers in each response group. The students in the control group on the other hand, wrote their second drafts based on assistance offered by the teacher due to specific questions asked by students in the control group. The two groups then counted the number of words they had written in their second drafts and this became the post-test measure of writing fluency. Finally, the two attitude instruments which were administered to both groups as pertest were administered again as post-tests measures. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was administered in order to measure the three – way interaction between the independent variables which were (1) teachers (three levels) (2) gender of students (3) and treatment condition. Results indicated an increased positive attitude towards writing on behalf of the experim ental group. However, no significant differences were noticed in post-test writing fluency. Therefore, peer evaluation does not affect students’ writing fluency. Some studies tackling the affective benefits of peer response examined students’ perceptions toward peer feedback. Chong (2010) examined student teachers’ perceptions and attitudes toward peer response and the likelihood to how they are willing to use the aforementioned approach in L2 writing classes. Results indicated that student teachers did not favor the usage of peer response in their classes due to â€Å"external reasons such as class size, time restrictions, authority control, as well as internal factors such as inability to see the benefits of peer response, insufficient experience or training in using this technique† (p. 58). As for the affective factor of peer feedback of ESL university students, Zhang (1995) made it clear the majority of his 81 ESL students (75%) who were enrolled at a university in USA actually favored feedback provided by teachers as opposed to feedback provided by peers.. The findings coincide with Nelson and Carson (1998) whose ESL college students expressed their tendency to favor teachers’ feedback rather than their peers’ feedback. Moreover, cultural differences were perceived to negatively affect peer response as some of the participants’ goal in peer review sessions particularly Chinese students was mainly maintaining good harmony by refraining from providing their pees with critical peer response. However, another study actually contradicted Nelson and Carson’s (1998) findings concerning the Chinese group’s perception of peer response. Hence, Roskams (1999) who examined Chinese EFL learners’ perceptions toward peer response. The univer sity –bound Chinese students actually reported their openness to engage in peer response and expressed that this approach could be beneficial to their ESL language learning. Hence, participants generally perceived peer feedback as useful. However, only 5 % of participants did not enjoy the collaborative learning arrangement. Therefore, many studies revealed conflicting results which reported inconsistency in findings which reflected that peer response is problematic due to students’ cultural schemata, their ability to review their peers; work and their attitudes towards peer response. However, Hu (2005) indicates that these problems are not inherent in peer response as research literature suggests that carefully designed training in peer response can help assist L2 writing students as well as their teachers gain understanding of the benefits of peer response (Berg, 1999; Min, 2006; Ting and Qian; 2010). THE ROLE OF THE COMPUTER IN CONVEYING MEDIATED FEEDBACK The role of computers in conveying mediating feedback in L2 (second langue) settings has become central for research concerned with technology-enhanced peer response lately. However, the results on the effects of integrating computer-mediated communication (CMC) into peer response have been conflicting, mixed, and even inconsistent (Schultz, 2000; Hu, 2005; Liu and Sadler, 2003; Tuzi, 2004; DiGiovanni and Nagaswami, 2001). Hence, many researchers (Braine, 1997; Leh, 1999; Biesenbach-Lucas and Weasenforth, 2001; Liu and Sadler, 2003) have expressed concerns about using computer-mediated communication as a substitute for the face-to-face venue of peer response, especially that its ultimate benefits for ESL learners have not been yet established fully by researchers. However, consensus have been researched among researchers that CMC-based peer response should be seriously blended with face-to-face communication in the peer response process (Schultz, 2000; Hu, 2005; Liu and Sadler, 2003; Tuzi, 2004; DiGiovanni and Nagaswami, 2001).

The Rejection of Svidrigailov in Crime and Punishment :: Dostoevsky Crime and Punishment

The Rejection of Svidrigailov in Crime and Punishment  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      Crime and Punishment  Ã‚     Raskolnikov would reject Svidrigailov because he knows that this man has designs against his sister. Dounia has been his main concern for the past couple chapters-he hounds Svidrigailov not because he enjoys his company, but he worries endlessly about his intentions. Svidrigailov and Raskolnikov at the bar engage in a conversation about Dounia and the interactions of her and he at the house of Marfa Petrovna. Raskolnikov is eventually duped by the base Svid., and he lets him be after he has jumped on a carriage and is speeding down the road-he is not going to the Islands though, he is coming back and has a meeting scheduled with Dounia. Svidrigailov, like Porfiry, employs tacit and devious tactics. Raskolnikov realizes this, and he resents Svidrigailov for this. There is another very important reason why Raskolnikov hates Svid. As Hobbes pointed out, if a person knows that another man knows the truth about a lie he is telling, or is in the position to find out such information, he will subsequently hate that person no matter what previous relation they were in. This hate and dislike can be repressed, but even then it still has the ability to come out in a deluge of rejection. Raskolnikov, so far, has been able to repress his anger towards Svidrigailov and also Porfiry. He does scream at Porfiry to either arrest him or let him be, but he is much less outwardly forceful with his anger. Does Svidrigailov represent Raskolnikov's evil side? Does he embody the ideas and philosophies of Raskolnikov? Perhaps it is easy to say yes-to simplify this great work of a philosophy and psychological writing. It is much better to steer away from the trap though of simply saying that he is the representation of R.'s evil side. The story is much deeper than that. Svidrigailov molests, irks, and bothers young women who do not wish to be associated with him. He panders to their weakness and self-admittedly uses deception to win them for his own. This is not Raskolnikov. Raskolnikov is the man who conceives a theory-a theory that actually had the better of society as its aim-Svid. simply exists in a nihilistic atmosphere of vice and wanton behavior.

Pluralist democracy Essay

Pluralist democracy works with numerous organised groups who all have some political power in the decision-making setting. It assumes that it’s ‘neutral’ government who listens to, and acts on the outcomes of these competing interests. Thus the large number and operation of pressure groups is considered to be a vital element in the promotion of pluralist democracy. There are considerations that pressure groups strengthen pluralist democracy. An argument for this encompasses that the existence of varied numerous pressure groups support the theory of pluralism. The modern political culture in the UK can be referred to as being one of pluralism in nature. This means that we expect a wide range of groups, interests, beliefs and ideologies to flourish together, all competing for attention and influence. The UK is a fundamentally free society, tolerant of different cultures, ideas and demands. As long as a group does not break the law, threaten the security of the state or incite others to commit crime or adopt racist ideas, it will be tolerated and protected from discrimination. Thus, pressure groups are able to operate in an extremely free and tolerant environment. In short, they are a key element in a pluralist society. Another argument that suggests pressure groups strengthen pluralist democracy is that pressure groups are a channel of representation between the people and the government, keeping government in touch with public opinion. Whether we take an active part or not, pressure groups represent our interests to those who govern. In virtually all our activities there is probably a group that is seeking to secure favourable legislation or decisions and to avoid unfavourable ones. As motorists, hospital patients, students, environmentalists, workers, and so on, we can be sure there is a group that is fighting our corner. In some cases we may be active members and so know exactly what issues are being addressed. In other cases we are not active but are nevertheless being passively represented. Even the smallest minorities are likely to enjoy such benefits; so pressure groups have important representation functions to perform. Additionally, the government openly accept the existence of pressure groups and involve them in decision making. They are a key part in the governing process. Their involvement at all stages of the policy and decision-making process helps to inform government itself and ensures that the interests and views of sections of the pubic are taken into account. In this sense, they can improve the quality of policy making. Governments also take into account the claims of pressure groups when making decisions. Pressure group activity in itself serves to enhance pluralist democracy by providing information and education to the public. It is clear that groups offer a considerable amount of information to the people. They are, by definition, independent of government (if they were not, we could not describe them as pressure groups), so we are receiving important messages from which we can make sound judgements. Of course, we cannot always rely upon the information being totally accurate, but if we combine all the various sources of information available to us we are able to form some kind of reasonable judgement. So, pressure groups certainly help to inform and educate us, which enhances a pluralist democracy. Pressure groups can be considered to widen the access to power and decision making for the mass of the citizens. The conventional view of pressure groups is that they help to spread power more widely. This would be seen by most commentators as an enhancement of democracy. Governments and parties tend to concentrate power in the hands of leaderships. Pressure groups, meanwhile, can empower their wider memberships. They represent the full range of the population and allow many voices to be heard. As long as they have any influence, they give the politically active part of the population access to decision makers, either directly or indirectly. We see this particularly effectively when considering mass-membership groups such as Age UK or unions representing public service workers. However, there are arguments that pressure groups weaken pluralist democracy. Pressure group activity can be viewed as elitist from several perspectives. When we look at the wealthy, strategically important groups we can see evidence of elitism. Some pressure groups may, in fact, concentrate power in the hands of a few. Governments favour certain groups who share their views or are at the time ‘electorally’ beneficial to their cause. The banking lobby can be seen as a prominent example, as can the various producer groups representing major industries. Producer groups, in particular, tend to represent their shareholders and management rather than their workers (a view that might be contested on the grounds that what is good for the industry is also good for its employees). When such elite are ‘insider’ groups, they might form powerful elite in combination with government. Ministers who are more influenced by group leaderships than by wider memberships could be accused of further elitism. This can be related to outsider or insider status. Some groups because of their economic power have more influence than others and this causes a disruption of the pluralist democratic position. Some groups can afford advertising to get their message across and thus they ‘buy’ their power. Related to their position in society is the issue of wealth. Clearly some groups have access to considerably more funds than others. All those sectional interests that represent employers and business in general inevitably have far more finance available to them than charities, which have to rely on hand-outs from the public or scarce lottery funding. The banking community is a similar example. In particular, wealthy groups, including individual companies, have adopted the practice of giving donations to political parties. Clearly they are hoping for a sympathetic attitude if their chosen party wins power. Perhaps more seriously, in 2006-07 it was alleged that a number of individuals had donated to political parties in return for the granting of peerages. The so-called ‘cash for peerages’ scandal did much to undermine faith in British democracy and further highlighted the issue of undue influence by those who command great wealth. In conclusion, pressure groups do strengthen pluralist democracy through its pluralism, representative function in keeping the government additionally in-touch with public views, role of educating the public on issues and empowering them with informed decisions after pressure group observation, and their acknowledgement and influence on some government decision-making. It is more that fixed elitism holds pressure groups back from pure pluralist democracy.

Insanity Defense

Insanity Defense Donita Estes, Patrick Fostso, Jennia McCray, Yasmine McGee, Inga Payne CJA/354 October 22, 2012 Samara Belgarde, J. D. Insanity Defense The criminal justice system in America is one of the fair systems in the world where anyone will be innocent until proven of guilt. The whole concept of the court system emphasizes how our laws work regardless where we come from and how we look like or healthy or not anyone is entitles of due process. The idea that our justice and court system are fair to anyone on trial due to an arrest by probable cause and sentencing by a verdict guilty and not guilty of the jury.In the case or State v. Stu Dents, where the defendant was accused of killing his former girlfriend. We are going to elaborate how the charge of insanity can be plead in the defense case and in the other hand give some understanding how this plead play a role in the defendant case during the trial and after the trial in some states and particular California. Does your tea m feel this defendant is competent to stand trial? Why or why not? We believe that the defendant may not be competent to stand trial, due to the fact that he had has emotionally and mental issues.The defendant has no knowledge of the crime or its consequences, if put on the stand he may revert back to that emotional state of mind and will not be able to give and accurate statement and will not be able to understand charges and sentencing. What is required in your state for an insanity defense? First of all, let’s understand the issue here, Mr. Dents was arrested of the killing his former girlfriend Uma Opee. Mr. Dents was charge by the state on theses: Homicide, Assault of a police, officer, Burglary and crimes related to drugs. After all these charges, the defendant pleads not guilty due to reason of insanity.In California, insanity can be called as an affirmative insanity: According to Schmalleger. F& Dolatowski, J (2010), an affirmative defense is a status that define some one who committed an unlawful act and requested an excuse for the behave due to the criminal conduct (Insanity). In California the defense need to show some aspect of legal defense such as: Defendant does not understand the nature of the act, Defendant does not know was wrong, Defendant does not have self-control, Defendant needs to show at the time he has a history of mental diseases against his ability to define between right and wrong.During sentencing of the insanity plea the jury can deliberate the sanity claim on many ways such as: -Hung jury will give the court of making determination if there is enough evidence to retry the defendant on sanity only. If the jury returns a unanimous of not guilty by reason of insanity the defendant will be committed at the state mental hospital. In the other hand in California, it will be difficult for the defense because the prosecutor will bring their own medical expert to show that the defendant has the ability to see between what’s right and wrong.What steps must be taken to prove insanity? Insanity defense is the defense which has a role of claiming that their client, the defendant was not in a state of understanding what he or she did due to mental disorder. This is to clarify that in this state the defendant does not bear any responsibility of the alleged actions. In this case insanity is a term used legally and not a medical one, so a court decides on whether to involve medical professionals or not. Definition of mental illness varies in a range of jurisdictions.The term insanity is under the guide line of the jurisdictions statutory and that cannot be defined by use of the medical definition (Fersch, 2005). As the defense team of in the case of State v. Stu Dents there should be the burden of proof. Our client, Stu Dents is charged of homicide, assault of police officer, kidnapping, burglary, and crimes related to drugs. Homicide is understood as killing of person due to omission or act of another. Kidnap ping is going against somebody’s will by taking him from one place to another without letting him or her exercise freedom.Burglary is considered as theft by entering into someone’s resident without permission. Homicidal offence, in side with drugs, is considered as a felony together with kidnapping and burglary. In their nature, they are considered as serious and punishable by death or long sentence (Cole, 2008). Considering the charges, there should be the burden of proof. It is clear that anybody accused before the court is innocent until he or she is proven guilty. The ultimate factor to consider in this case is the intent and mental element. It is clear that at the time when our client, Mr.Stu Dent was being arrested, he was not all well. He was irrational, agitated, and combative, and when officers tried to hand cuff him he was screaming and yelling, mentioning unrealistic phrases for instance he said he was God. The reality is our client was mentally instable. Fo r the offence of homicide it not clear that our client was the one who entered in Uma Opee resident, and it is not known if there were signs of using force and if he used a key to gain access to his girl friend’s residence. Finally, after the toxicology reports our client Mr.Stu Dents, was not under the influence of drugs. It is justified that Mr. Stu Dents is not mentally stable therefore, he do not deserve to go to prison rather to go for psychiatric care (Ciolino, 2000). Court issues members of the panel of judges that the accused do not account for the act due to the reason of mental illness. If the evidence presented is found to have doubts about his her sanity, then there is need to establish sanity of the one accused (Cole, 2008). Burden of proof-the accused bears the burden of proving to the defense by use of convincing and clear evidence.Defendant is required to show sufficient evidence, creating a reasonable doubt to justify sanity. This determined by the prosecutor after considering the evidence (Cole, 2008). If the accused is found to be insane there for he or she is not responsible of any criminal conduct due to his or her state of mental health (Cole, 2008). Conclusion Finally, you do not consider the opinions of the experts who testified of the matter but you must consider the defendants sanity when the criminal conduct happened, viewing the evidence presented lightly then concluding the truth of the matter.References Ciolino, P. J. , & Castle, G. E. (2000). Advanced forensic criminal defense investigations. Tucson, AZ: Lawyers & Judges Pub. Co. Cole, G. F. , & Smith, C. E. (2008). Criminal justice in America. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth. Fersch, E. A. (2005). Thinking about the insanity defense: Answers to frequently asked questions With case examples. Lincoln, NE: iUniverse. Schmalleger, F. , Hall, D. E. , & Dolatowski, J. J. (2010). Criminal law today. (4th Ed. ) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. http://www. californiamentalhea lthlawyer. com http://www. shouselaw. com